Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain

Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain

history of the Digambara jain

Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain

Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain

Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain

Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain: "The history of the Digambara jain sect after Mahavira can generally be divided into the follwing four periods: ..."

Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain

Jain Religion: History of the Digambara Jain

History of the Digambara Jain

The history of the Digambara jain sect after Mahavira can generally be divided into the follwing four periods:

1. The first five or six centuries after Bhagavan Mahavira. i.e. the period between Mahavira and the beginning of the Christian era.
2. The eight centuries from the beginning of the Christian era (may be called the period of the Acharyas).
3. The period of the dominance of Bhattarakas (in south India), up to the 17th/18th century.
4. The period of reformation from 17th/18th century to the present day.

1. The First Six centuries
The first five or six centuries in the history of the Digambara sect are hidden in obscurity. We know almost nothing about the history of this sect as a separate Jain Church in these centuries. (The reason most probably was that the two Churches had not till then separated, and as such they had no separate history.) The Digambaras unlike the Svetambaras have not written any history of their sect, and all that we have are some lists of successive patriarchs. Not much reliance can be placed on these lists for they were compiled many centuries later. In fact the first list that we possess is the one inscribed in Sravana Belgola in about AD 600, that is almost eleven centuries after Mahavira. This Sravana-Belgola succession list is as follows:

Mahavira-Gautama-Lohacharya-Jambu- Vishnudeva- Aparajita- Govardhana-Bhadrabahu-
Vishakha- Prosthila - Karttikarya (Kshattrikarya)-Jaya- Nama (Naga)- Siddhartha- Dhritisena- Buddhila, etc.

It will be noticed that the difference with the Shvetambara list starts almost from the very beginning. The name of Gautama as successor of Mahavira is not mentioned in the Shvetambara list as given in the Kalpa-Sutra. In fact the Kalpa Sutra explicitly mentions that only two Ganadharas, Indrabhuti and Sudharma, survived Mahavira, and it was Sudharma who succeeded Mahavira as head of the Church and no other Ganadhara left any spiritual descendants. Indrabhuti who was a Gautama by gotra is the person mentioned in the Digambara list as the first successor of Mahavira. Both the sects are in agreement in asserting that Indrabhuti Gautama was a kevalin, but the Svetambaras deny that he ever headed the Church, or left any disciples.

The confusion is carried on to the next name also. Many Digambara lists including the Sravana Belgola inscription say that Gautama's successor as the head of the Church was Lohacharya. The name Lohacharya is not known to the Svetambaras. Other Digamabara lists (e.g. the one in the Harivansha Purana) mention Sudharma as the successor of Gautama. Fortunately, Lohacharya and Sudharma are the names of the same person. This is explicitly stated in Jambuddvita Pannati

In the Digambara list Lohacharya's and in the Shvetambara list Sudharma's successor is Jambusvami. Here for the first and last time the Digambara and Shvetambara lists agree in regard to the order of succession. (Digambaras and Svetambaras both agree that after Mahavira, only three persons, namely, Gautama, Sudharma and Jambu became kevalins.)The next three names in the Sravana Belgola list (AD 600) are Vishnudeva, Aparajita and Govardhana. Later Digambara works such as the Harivanshi Purana (late 8th century) include the name of Nandimitra between Vishnudeva and Aparajita. The present day Digambaras accept this later list of four names. However, none of these names are known to the Svetambaras. They have instead the following three names: Prabhava, Shayyambna (or Shayyambhava) and Yashobhadra.Shayyambhava as we have seen was the author of the Dashavaikalika, one of the most important texts of the Svetambaras, but the Digambaras neither know his name, nor recognize the book.

The successor of Govardhana in the Digambara list is Bhadrabahu. In the Shvetambara list, the corresponding place is occupied by two persons: Bhadrabahu and Sambhutavijaya who were joint patriarchs of the Church. Bhadrabahu is an important name for the Digambaras. It was Bhadrabahu who had according to the Sravana Belgola inscription (AD 600) had predicted a famine in Ujjayinai which led the Jain community there to leave for South India under the leadership of one Prabhachandra (or, according to the later versions, he himself led the Jain community (of Magadh?) to South India). The difficulty can be solved if we accept that it was another Bhadrabahu who had taken the community there. This second Bhadrabahu appears as the 27th acharya in the Digambara list (the Svetambaras do not know him) and was an Upangi i.e. knower of one Anga only, and not a Shrutakevali like Bhadrabahu I, who knew all the 12 Angas. Bhadrabahu II died 515 years after the Nirvana (i.e. in 12 BC) and we know that he belonged to South India, for the great Kundakunda who undoubtedly belonged to South India calls himself the pupil of Bhadrabahu.1 The matter is slightly confusing here for according to the pattavalis of the Digambaras, Kundakunda was not the first but the fourth acharya after Bhandabahu II. The actual list is as follows: 1, Bhadrabah II. 2. Guptigupta. 3. Maghanandi. 4. Jinacandra I. 5. Kundakunda. Perhaps the solution of this problem is that all these four persons from Guptigupta to Kundakunda were pupils of Bhadrabahu II, and became acahryas one after another.

Now to go back to Bhadrabahu I, he was as we know the last Shrutakevali. The acharyas who came after him were dashapurvis that is, they knew the 11 Angas and the 10 Purvas. Their names were:

1. Visakha
2 Prosthila
3. Kshatria
4. Jayasena
5, Nagasena
6. Siddhartha
7. Dhritisena
8. Vijaya
9. Buddhilinga
10. Deva I
11. Dharasena.

Except for their names we know nothing about them.
They were followed by ekadashangis, who knew only the eleven Angas. Their names were:

1. Nakshatri
2. Jayapalaka
3. Pandava
4. Dhruvasena and
5. Kansa.

Then came the upangis, who knew only one Anga. They were

1. Subhadra
2. Yashobhadra
3. Bhadrabahu II and
4. Lohacarya II.

Lastly there were the ekangis. They had only fragmentary knowledge of the canon. Their names were:

1. Arhadvali
2. Maghanandi
3. Dharasena
4. Pushpadanta and
5. Bhutavali.

It is from the period of the ekangis, that is , Arhadvali, Maghanandi, Kharasena, Pushpadanta and Bhutavali onwards that we get some material facts about the Digambara acharyas. All these five were perhaps the disciples of Bhadrabahu II.

It is said that it was Arhadvali who had divided the Original sect (the Mula Sangha) into four different sanghas, namely, Sinha, Nandi, Sena and Deva."This we learn from the inscriptions dated 1398 and 1432, and from the Nitisara composed by Indranandin between 1524 and 1565 and from the pattavalis of the last century. It is, of course, not possible to say whether this story of Arhadvali dividing the Mula Sangha into four branches is correct or not. None of these branches exist, and even the first mention of this division is almost thirteen hundred years after the alleged event.

It is said that Dharasena, the third among the ekangis named above was the last master3 of the Astanga Mahanimitta the "eightfold Mahanimittas." What these Mahanimitta were, is not clear, but they seem to have something to do with astrology or clairvoyance, for it was with this power that Bhadrabahu had predicted the 12 year famine in Ujjayini as we know from the Sravana Belgola inscription (AD 600):

"Bhadrabahu-svamina Ujjayinyam astanga-mahanimitta-tatvajnena- trailokya- darshina, nimittena dvadasha samvatshara-kala vaisamyam uplabhya." (By Bhadrabahu-svamin, who possessed the knowledge of the Eight Mahanimittas, the seer of the past, present and future, was foretold by the signs a dire calamity in Ujjayini, lasting for a period of 12 years).
Dharasena also had a partial knowledge of the canonical works like the Angas, Purvas, etc. According to the legend, Dharasena lived in Girnar Saurastra. He sent a message to the Digambaras of South India warning them against the disappearance of the knowledge of the canons. The monks of Dakshinpatha then sent two intelligent persons to Dharasena. Dharasena passed on his knowledge to these two persons whose names were Pushpa Danta and Bhutavali.

These two then returned home and wrote an important work Shat-Khandagama- Sutra based on that teaching. This work thus is revered among the Digambaras almost as a canonical work.4 The work was completed on the fifth of the bright fortnight of Jyestha: and that day is thus celebrated every year as Shruta-panchami.

2. The Period of the Acharyas
The eight centuries from the beginning of the Christian era is generally called the period of great jain Acharyas as Kundakunda, Umaswami, Samantabhadra, etc.

Kundakunda: Kundakunda, the great acharya and prolific writer of books on Jainism was living in the first century AD. Kundakunda wrote in Prakrit and this would be a language quite unfamiliar to the local people other than the learned among the Jains. In fact he is venerated almost as a Ganadhara, that is as if he was as knowledgeable as one of the immediate disciples of Mahavira. As time passed he gained in miraculous powers, and in an inscription at Sravana Belgola dated AD 1398, it is said that when Kundakunda walked his feet would be four fingers above the ground.

A village called Konda Kumda or Konka Kunda few kilometers from the Guntakkal railway station is said to be the place where he was born. Some claim that Kundakunda belonged to Karnataka, while others suggested that he lived in Kanchi, because his place of work was said to have been in that area. In fact, there is also some difficulty about his exact name. He is said to have had the following names: Vakragriva, Elacarya Gridhrapincha, Padmanandi and Kundakunda, but so far as the first four names are concerned, there have been other ancient Jain authors with the same or similar names in the later centuries. Thus it will be safer to call him by the name of Kundakunda only.

Umaswami or Umasvati: The most celebrated acharya among the Digambaras after Kundakunda was Umasvami. In the South Indian inscriptions he is mentioned immediately after Kundakunda, which implies that he was a disciple of Kundakunda. Umasvami had the epithet Gridhrapincha or Gridhrapiccha, “ Vulture's feather”, which Kundakunda had too. According to most of the Digambara pattavalis, he lived from about AD 135 to 219.

The Svetambaras on the other hand think that his name was Umasvati. He was so called because his mother's name was Uma Vatsi, and his father's Svati.1I The name of his teacher was Ghosanandi Kshamashramna. About his period the Shvetambara traditions differ, but in any case none of them is in agreement with the Digambara tradition.

It is not certain that he belonged to South India, for he wrote his great work Taftvarthadhigama Sutra "the Manual for the Understanding of the True Nature of Things" in Pataliputra. This manual in Sanskrit is recognized as an authority by both Digambaras and Svetambaras. Winternitz wrote, “Even at the present day (this work) is read by all Jains in private houses and temples. By reading this book once though one is said to acquire as much merit as by fasting for one day. The logic psychology, cosmography, ontology and ethics of the Jain, are treated in these Sutras and in the commentary appended by the author himself, in the closest possible agreement with the Canon, more specially with Anga VI (Jnatadharmakathah). Even today it may still serve as an excellent summary of Jains dogmatic. It is true that the commentary, which expresses views that are not in harmony with those of the Digambaras is not recognized by this sect as the work of Umasvami. It is doubtful, therefore, whether the Digambaras are justified in claiming him as one of their own.”12 However, Umasvami is an important writer for the Digambaras. They honour him as an equal of the Shrutakeavlins of old (Shrutkevaldesya) and would not like to SUI render him to the Svetambaras.13 The Svetambaras also greatly respect Umasvati, and give him the epithets puravit knower of ancient texts and vacakaearya "master reciter".
Umasvami or Umasvali is said to have been a prolific writer and said to have written about 500 books. Very few of these are known today. The Digambars think that the 14 Pujaprakarna Prasamarati, and Jambudvipasamasa are his works.

Among the early commentators of Umasvami's Tatvartha- dhigama-Sutra was Siddhasena Divakara. He too like Umasvami is regarded by both Digambaras and Svetambaras as one of their own.14 He is perhaps the last acharya to be claimed by both the scats. However, his name does not appear in the Digambaras pattavalis of south India).

Samantabhadra: According to a pattavalli given in an inscription of 1163 AD at Sravana Belgola, Umasvati's disciple was Balakapiccha, and his disciple was Samantabhadra. He is also styled 'Svami' and referred to with reverence by later acharyas. Digambaras place the period in which he flourished as between AD 120 and 185. Samantabhadra was definitely a Digambara. He wrote among other books, a commentary of Umasvami's Tattvartha DhigamaSutra. The main part of the commentary is no longer extant but the introductory part of the commentary exists. It is known as Devagama-Sutra or Aptamimansa. The Jain philosophy of Syadvada was, perhaps for the first time, fully explained in this book. The work was therefore, discussed by non-Jain philosophers such as Kumarila (8th / 9th centuries ) and Vachaspatimishra respectively. Few Jain authors except Samantabhadra and Akalanka have been found worthy of such notice by non-Jain philosophers.

Pujyapada It is generally agreed that Pujyapada was the epithet of Devanandi. He had is another epithet, Jinendrabuddhi. He is generally known for this grammar called Jainendra Vyakarana. Vopadeva, in the 13th century, mentions him among the eight great grammarians of the country. Pujyayada had also written a commentary on Umasvami's work, called Sarvarthasiddhi.

We come next to Akalanka with whom the period of the great Jain acharyas ends in the Karnataka region. According to one of the pattavalis given above he was the disciple of Pujayapada Devanandi. Apart from writing a commentary called the Tattvartharajavarttika on the great work of Umasvami, Akalanka wrote a number of works on logic, viz., Nyasavinischaya, Laghiyastarya, and Svarupasambodhana. He was thus called a Master of Jain logic- Syadvada - Vidyapati. He as opposed, as stated earlier, by Kumarila, the great philosopher of Brahmanical orthodoxy. Akalanka wrote many other treatises also. Thus beginning with the 1st century and up to the end of the 8th century, the Jains of the Karnataka region produced a number of distinguished scholars.

Tamil Nadu: It has been surmised from the various references in the Tamil literature that Jainism was quite important in Tamil Nadu in the period 5th to 11th century. Jainism is not mentioned in the Sangam literature (4th century AD), but mention of the people professing Jainism is found in the two Tamil epics Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai. Both these epics belong to the 6th or 7th century AD. Manimekhalai is a Buddhist work and refers to the Jains as Ni (r) granthas. It gives a reasonably good exposition of the Jain religious philosophy. But naturally, being a Buddhist work refutes it. Silappadikaaram is the story of a wife's devotion to her husband. It mentions Uraiyur a Chola capital, as a center of Jainism. Both the classics relate that the Ni (r) granths lived outside the town in their cool cloisters. The walls of which were surrounded by small flower gardens. They also had monasteries for nuns. This description of Jain monasteries leads one to doubt its authenticity, for the Jains unlike the Buddhists do not favor living in monasteries. Also since the Jains of south India were Digambaras, there should not have been nuns among them, to say nothing of there being monasteries for them.

Another Tamil work, the Pattinapalai, speaks of the Jain and Buddhist temples being in one quarter of the city of Pugar, while in another quarter the Brahmans with plaited hair performed sacrifices and raised volumes of smoke. These references show that the number of Jains in Tamil Nadu was sufficiently large to be noticed in the popular literature of the period. One cannot avoid the suspicion, however, that there was a tendency on the part of these writers to mix up the Jains and the Buddhists. But Hiuen Tsang who was in Kanchi in the middle of the 7th century also reported that he saw numerous Nirgranthas at this place: and since he is not likely to have confused between the Buddhists and the Nirgranthas, is certain, that the Jain population of Tamil Nadu at that time was quite large.
The Jain population of Tamil Nadu was apparently larger in the 8th and 9th century than in the 7th century, for in the latter period there are very few Jain inscriptions. Most of the inscriptions in Tamil (about 80 or so), belong to the 8th and the 9th centuries, and these have been found mainly in the Madurai Tirunelveli area. [In the Salem district also there was a Jain temple or religious place in Tagdur (Dharmapuri) in AD 878.] Thus Jains were quite numerous in Tamil Nadu in the 9th century. Thereafter there was perhaps a slow reduction in the Jain population.

Many large and small Jain temples still survive in Tamil Nadu.. Two of these are important Jain centers even today. One is a Tirumalaipuram, and the other is a Tiruparuttikunram. The latter is a suburb of Conjeeveam, about three kilometers from the center of the town, and is in fact still called Jain Kanci. The presiding deity here is Vardhamana who is also styled trailokya nathasvami. The temple is one of the biggest in the taluk.

It is adorned with artistic splendor, and it has a large number of icons of the Jain pattern. From the inscriptions (about 17 in number) found at this place it appears that it was built by the Chola emperors Rajendra I (c. 1014-44) and Kulottunga I (c. 1070 -1120), and added to by Rajendra III (c. 216-46). Later additions were made by the Vijayanagar emperors Bukka II (in 1387-88) and Krishna Deva Raya (in 1518). There are some remarkable murals on the temple. These date from the 16th and the 18th century.

The fact that this large and beautiful Jain temple is the heart of the Tamil country was being adorned even in the 18th century proves that a sufficiently numerous and prosperous Jain community existed in the part of the country till then. Otherwise the temple could not have been maintained.

3 The period of Bhattaraks (The Ninth to the Seventeenth Century in Karnataka)
This period was the most significant in the history of the Digambara sect also called the period of Bhattarakas.. Throughout this long period Jainism was a prominent religion of south India, and especially of Karnataka. The Jains held important positions in the government. Much of the commerce of the country was controlled by the Jains. All these prosperous people spent lavishly for the construction of temples and monuments of their religion. While the rulers spent their wealth in building the Hindu temples at Ellora, Halevid, etc., the Jain commercial classes filled the region with gigantic statues of Bahubali and Magnificent stambhas (towers) and temples. Going by the number of the archaeological remains alone, it might be inferred that some parts of Karnataka, specially the area round about Sravana Belagola, and Karakal were entirely Jain areas.

The Bhattarakas could be compared with the abbots or Mahants of monasteries, but in place of monasteries that do not exist in Jainism, the Bhattarkas were the person who managed the temples and also the estates endowed to the temples by the rulers, and the rich devotees. Though these jobs were of a secular nature, the Bhattarakas were actually religious persons. They were the religious leaders of the community. Among the Svetambaras, such leadership was provided by the monks; but on account of the rule of strict nudity, few people became monks among the Digambaras, and the Bhattarakas thus necessarily had to assume this leadership. Another important function that the Bhattarkas performed was to lead the members of the community to various places of pilgrimage. The Bhattarakas were not strictly munis or ascetics, and therefore they did not go about naked, as Digambara munis were expected to live.

Then a new sect of yatis the Bhattarakas, started among the Digambaras. The legend has no historic basis for the mention of the Bhattarakas, is found in the 9th century in the Satkhandagamatika of Virasena, but the system must have started much earlier. For even in the inscriptions of the 5th century we find mention of the gifts of land to Jain temples, and there must have been some body to manage the properties so received.

The Digambara Jain Community was divided during this period into various sanghas and ganas. The Sena gana and the Balatkara gana claimed that they belonged to the Mula sangha. Similarly Mathura, Ladabagada, Bagada and Nanditata ganas claimed kastha as their sangha. The kastha sangha is said to have been established in 697 by Kumarasena in Nanditata (the present Nanded in Maharashtra). On the other hand the documents of these four ganas prior to the 12th century do not mention that they had any connection with the Kastha sangha. It has been conjectured therefore that perhaps the sangha itself was formed by the coming together of these four ganas.

All these speculations, however, are of little importance, for, the difference between one gana and another was negligible. When we come to the exact difference in the beliefs of the various ganas and sanghas, it appears that they mainly lie in the matter of using the various kinds of pichchhis (sweeps) by the monks and in nothing else. While the Sena gana and the Balatkara gana prescribed the peacock's tail for their pichchhi, the Ladabagada and the Nanditata prescribed the camara (yak's tail). The Mathura gana on the other hand did not use any pichchhi at all. Schubring, however, mentions an important point, that the kastha sangha allowed women also to take diksa. Perhaps this has affected the praxis of the northern Digambaras, for the Digambara Jains of northern India do allow the women at the present time to become nuns. (The nuns are allowed a long piece of white cloth to be worn as sadis. A Digambara nun does not expect to get salvation in this birth. She only expects to go to heaven as a reward for her religious life. When her allotted period of stay in heaven is over, she would be born as a man. He can then try for the final salvation.)

Rashtrakutas: The Rashtrakutas ruled over a large area in the center of India for two
centuries beginning with the middle of the 8th century. One of the important patrons of learning among them was Amoghavarsha Nripatunga (815-877). He was himself a scholar, and wrote an important Kannada work on poetics. One of his ecpithets was Atishayadhavala. Jinasena wrote the Jain Adipurana during his period. The commentary on the certain parts of the Shatkhandagama was also perhaps prepared during his period. This commentary is known as Jayadhavala.

It was during Amoghavarsha's time that Ugraditya wrote a treatise on medicine called Kalyanakaraka. It is a voluminous work in Sanskrit containing 8,000 slokas. Ugraditya says that the original author of this work was Pujyapada, and he had only revised and enlarged it.

Ugraditya divides the book in eight chapters, as was usual with other contemporary Ayurvedic works. However his main attempt was to eliminate the use in medicine of meat and other similar animal products and all types of intoxicants. In other words, it prescribed only those medicines that a Jain could safety take. The author refers to Agnivesha, Kashyapa and Charaka among the ancient authors but does not mention Susruta or Nagar Juna. Mercury and other metals are important ingredients medicine in the Kalyanakaraka.
Another scholar who flourished during this period was the Jain mathematician Mahaviracharya, who wrote his Ganitasarasangraha 38 in c. 850. Mahavira found out the rule for calculating the number of combinations of n things taken r at a time.

A mathematical discovery of this period was the use of logarithms for calculations with large numbers. These logarithms were with the bases 2, 3, and 4. Reference to the use of logarithms occurs for the first time in the Dhavala commentary mentioned above. Use of logarithms for the ease of calculations with large numbers that occur in Jain cosmology, continued at least for a hundred years, for Nemichandra at the end of the tenth century mentions the rule of logarithm (which he called ardhacchheda, i.e., logarithm at the base 2), as: "The ardhachheda of the multiplier plus the ardhachheda of the multiplicand is the ardhachheda of the product" Trilokasara, Gatha 105)

Later Gangas: In the later centuries of Ganga rule in southern Karnataka we see evidence
of great material prosperity of the Jains. Epigraphic records indicate that these rulers were all patrons of the Jains and made grants to various Jain temples. Indeed, some of them might have themselves become Jains. These were Nitimarga I (853-870), Nitimarga II (907- 935), Marasinha III ((960-974), etc. In fact, Marasinha III died by the Jain vow of starvation, known as Sallekhana in the presence of Ajitasena Bhattaraka in AD 974.

Some ministers and generals of these Ganga rulers also were devout Jains and spent large sums of money in building temples and other architectural monuments. The 17 meter high statue of Bahubali was built at Sravana Belgola by Chamundaraya in 983. Chamundaraya was the minister and general of Rachamalla, a king of the Ganga dynasty.

Nemichandra, the famous Digambara scholar was a friend of this minister. Three of Nemichandra's works are still considered quite important for the Digambara sect. These are Trilokasara, Labdhisara and Gommatasara. The first is a work on Jain cosmography. Nemichandra displayed his mathematical talent in writing this book. The other two works are on Jain philosophy. (All these three works of Nemichandra were translated into Hindi prose by Todarmal of Jaipur, in the 18th century).

The Gangas ruled over south Karnataka from the fourth to the 10th century and all through their period they were helpful towards the Jains.

Hoysalas: Karnataka entered its period of artistic glory with the establishment of the Hoysala dynasty in the 12th century. The capital of the Hoysalas was at Dorasamudra. They attained great power under Vishucardhana (1111-52) and his grand son Vira Ballala II. The last notable ruler of this dynasty was Vira Ballala III. He sustained defeats at the hands of Kafur, the general of Ala-ud-din Khailji, and finally perished in or about 1342. The Hoysala kings built many beautiful temples in south Karnataka. These temples are the glories of Indian art. While the kings built temples of the Shiv and Vaishnava faiths, their ministers and the merchant princes among their subjects built Jain temples. Ganga Raja, a general and minister of Visuvardhana the greatest of the Hoysals, built the Parshvantha basadi (basadi in Karnataka means a Jain temple) at Chamarajanagar near Mysore. Gangaraja also built the surrounding enclosure to the statue of Bahubali in Sravana Belgola. In 1116 Hulla who was treasurer or bhandari for three successive years, Hoysala rulers built the Chaturvinsati- Jinalaya (also known as the Bhandari-basadi) in Sravana Belgola. Another basadi in the vicinity is the Viraballabha- Jainalya built in honor of the Hoysala king Viraballabha II by a merchant in 1176. We thus see that all these dynasties that ruled over Karnataka were friendly to the Jains.

Viyayanagara Empire: This empire was known among other things for the revival of Brahmanic learning but if we go by the number of existing monuments spread throughout the empire, it was also a period of great building activity of the Jains. In fact the large building activity seen among the Jains was due to the fact that the main commercial class of Karnataka, the Vira Banajigas had become ardent Jains.

If we take the period from the 10th to the early 17th century, we find that the main center of constructional activity of the Jains in the first half of this period was Sravana Belgola, but by the second half of this period the center had shifted westwards towards Karkala, almost on the sea-coast near Mangalore. Karkala itself was the seat of the Bhairarasa Wodeyars, a powerful Jain family (of which no representatives are now left.) The second largest image of Gommatadeva (or Bahubali) about 12.5 metres high was built here in AD 1431. It was built by Vira Pandya Bhairarasa Wodeyar. At Haleangadi, close by is the finest Jain stambha in the district. It has a monolithic shaft 33 feet (10 metres) high in eight segments, each beautifully and variously ornamented, supporting an elegant capital and topped by a stone shrine containing a statue.

The total height is about 50 feet (15 metres)".
Another very large Bahubali statue was built in Yenur (or Venur) now a village in the Mangalore Taluk. The statue is 37 feet (11.1 metres) high and was built in 1603. At that time the place must have been quite important, for besides this statue there are numerous other Jain remains there.

The place nearby which became the center of Jainism in South India in the period 13th to the early 17th century is Mudabadri, about 16 kilometers from Karkala. The place is so important that it is described as Jain-Kasi. This Jain center is said to have been started near about AD 714 when a monk from Sravana Belgola established the first Jain temple, the Parshvanatha-basadi here. The place became important after 1220, when an important acharya Charukirti Panditcharya arrived here from Sravana Belgola.

From then on wards till the early 17th century this whole area was a scene of large constructional activity of the Jains. The architectural style adopted was also peculiar. As Fergusson remarks, "When we descend the Ghats into Kanada, or the Tulava country, we come on a totally different state of matters. Jainism is the religion of the country, and all or nearly all the temples belong to this sect, but their architecture is neither the Dravidian style of the south, nor that of northern India, and indeed is not known to exist anywhere else in India proper, but recurs with all its peculiarities in Nepal."

Most of the Jain religious buildings in and near about Mudabadri were built by the wealthy merchants of the area. The thousand pillared basadi or temple, known as the Tribhuvana tilaka chuda-mani' was built by a group of Jain merchants (settis) in 1430, and this is the most magnificent Jain shrine in south India.

Mudabadri temples also became depositories of Jain literature. Indeed the famous commentaries Dhavala and Jayadhavala were found only in the Siddhanta-basadi here.As the Mudabadri Karkala area, also known as the Tuluva country, became more and more important, the influence of Jainism declined in the rest of South India. The one reason for this was the revival of the Brahmanical religion under the kings of the Vijayanagar empire. The Vijayanagara kings were not against the Jains. In fact, they were always consoling just when any civil dispute arose between the Jains and others. Saletore cites two cases, one in 1363 and the other in 1368, where the disputes between the two antagonistic groups of Jains and non-Jains were amicably settled by the Vijayanagara rulers. These settlements were duly recorded in stone inscriptions. The cause of the decline was thus not the hostility of the kings. It has to be looked some where else.

Of all the places in South India, it was Karnataka where Jainism was strongest. Two things happened there, which in the course of a few centuries, reduced the influence of Jainism in the greater part of the region. Ultimately by the 16th century its stronghold was left only in one corner of the region. That is in the Tuluva country, round about Karkala, Mudabadre, etc. The first of this was the rise of the Vira-Shiv or the Lingayat religion under the leadership of Basava in the 12 century.

The second and perhaps the decisive reason was the conversion of the main mercantile class the Vira Banajigas from Jainism to Vira-Shaivism. Jainism, therefore, slowly became extinguished in south India, leaving comparatively small pockets of devotees in the centers, which were great at one time. These were, for instance, Sravana Belgola and Mudabadre. Jain religious groups have survived there to this day. The indigenous Jains who are left in South India today are endogamous clans and so do not intermarry with the Jains of North India. They are all Digambaras and are dividend into four main castes, viz. Setavala (not found in Karnataka), Chaturtha, Panchama, and Bogara or Kasara, and three small castes, Upadhyayas, Kamboja and Harada. Their priests are Brahmans.

"Each of the four main castes in the South is led by its own spiritual leader (bhattaraka), who occupying intermediary positions between ascetics and laymen can individually resolve disputes between the members of the caste and expel from it whom so ever he considers it necessary." The Chaturthas are mainly agriculturists, the Setavalas are agriculturists as well as tailors, the Kasaras or the Bogaras are coppersmiths, and the members of the Panchama caste follow any of these professions.

The Digambaras of North India
Thanks to the numerous stone inscriptions and religious literature found in South India, more or less a continuous history of the Digambaras Jains can be traced from the 5th to 17th century AD. We know much less about the Digambara communities in the north during the corresponding period. As stated earlier, most of the statues of the Tirthankaras that have been found in the 4th and 5th century in the area now covered by Uttar Pradesh, were nude. The majority of the Jains in this area today are Digambaras. We may thus conclude that when finally the great schism occurred (and this might have been a gradual process) the Jains of north India found themselves in the Digambara camp. Later monuments also support the view that most of the Jains of eastern and northern Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were also Digambaras. Mention has already been made of the Digambara images found in Bihar (12th century), and Orissa (11th to 15th centuries). Much more important is the Jain group of temples in Khajuraho (10th-11th century). These are all Digambara temples and must have been built by the rich merchants living in the capital city of Chandela Rajput kings of Bundelkhand. One temple in this group, that of Parshvanatha, has even been compared favorably with the renowned Kandarya Mahadev temple of this place. Another important group of Digambara Temples is in Deogarh in Jhansi district. The Jain merchants of Bundelkhand were perhaps as well looked after by the Chandela rulers as their counterparts were in Karnataka.A few Kegambara inscriptions have been found in Gwalior also.

Chittorgarh, like Khajuraho, was a stronghold of the Digambaras in the 12th and 13th century. This is proved by a number of Jain inscriptions found there. Four of them are by one Shaha Jijaka. It was he who had raised the famous Kirtistambha of Chittorgarh in 1300 AD Shaha Jijaka claimed to belong to the Kundakundanvyaya. This proves that not only was the tower raised by a Digambara merchant, but also that the practice of claiming descent from the line of Kundakunda, a practice quite common in South India, had spread to north by the 13th century.

However, the fact remains that it is difficult to build up a history of Digambaras of north India on the basis of the available epigraphic evidence. The number of inscriptions found so far are too few. In the five volumes Jain Shila Lekha Sangraha, a Digambara collection, the number of Digambara inscriptions recorded from north India after the 6th century would no be more than 20.

There is a paucity of literary sources also. The Digambaras of North India, unlike their counterparts in the South, composed very few works at least up to the 17th century. In fact in the early medieval period there was perhaps only one important Digambara writer in north India. Harisena who wrote is quite informative about the social and religious condition of India of this period. As mentioned earlier, the Shvetambara sect according to Harisena originated in Valabhi.

In the absence of sufficient epigraphic and literary evidence, one has to depend on the legendary materials for reconstructing the history of the Digambaras of north India.
The Digambaras, unlike the Svetambaras did not break up into large number of groups and sub-groups in north India. Most of them belonged to the Bisapanthis sect. The origin of this sect is not clearly known. "It probably originated in the 13th century. Glasenapp remarks that one Vasantakirti held the view that so long as the monks lived among the people, they should wear one garment. The believers of this opinion were called Vishvapanthis. This was corrupted into Bisapanthis. The monks of this pantha live in a cloister under the headship of a Bhattaraka. They install the image of Tirthankaras along with that of Kshetrapala deities such as the Bhairavas and others. They worship the images by offering fruits, flowers and other foodstuffs.

Whatever might be the origin of the Bisapanthis, the descrition of their religious practices as given above is substantially correct. In fact the majority of the Digambara Jains of northern India followed these practices. As the days passed the Bhattarakas, who managed the properties of the temples and monasteries became more and more powerful. The popularity of the Kshetrapala deities (who for all practical purposes were folk Gods) continued to increase. A protest against such laxity in the Jain religion which by its nature is puritan was inevitable. Such a movement started some time in the 17th century in the Agra region. One of the leaders of this protest was Banarasidasa Jain. In course of time the movement grew stronger, and it was named Terapantha. According to Bakhtaram Shah, an 18th century author who was himself against this movement, the Terapantha sect originated in Sanganer, near Jaipur, sometimes in the early 18th century. As it has always happened in the Jain reformist movements, the Terapanthis did not try to introduce any change in the basic tenets of the Jain religion. Their reforms were connected with small details of rituals only. For instance, this sect believed that one should not worship in the temples at night, that while worshipping one should be standing and not sitting, that kesara (saffron) should not be offered to image, etc.

Jainism is an independent and most ancient religion of India. Jainsim is an eternal religion. Jainism is revealed in every cyclic period of the universe, and this constitutes the pre-historic time of Jainism. And there is a recorded history of Jainism since about 3000-3500 BC. The discovery of the Indus Civilization seem to have thrown a new light on the antiquity of Jainism. The evidence suggests that Jainism was known among the people of the Indus Valley around 3000-3500 B.C. Some nude figures, considered to be of Lord Rishabha, on the seals have been discovered at Mohenjodaro and Harrappa. There is an article that suggests the representation of the seventh Tirthankara SuParsvanath. The people of the Indus Valley not only practiced Yoga but worshipped the images of Yogis. There are figures in Kayotsarga posture of standing are peculiarly Jain.

In addition, the sacred signs of swastika are found engraved on a number of seals. Furthermore, there are some motifs on the seals found in Mohen-jo-Daro and it is suggested that these motifs are identical with those found in the ancient Jain art of Mathura. This presence of Jain tradition in the earliest period of Indian history is supported by many scholars. It strongly suggests that Jainism existed in pre-Aryan time.

Janism in Vedic Period
In the Rig -veda there are clear references to Rishabhdev, the 1st Tirthankar, and to Aristanemi, the 22nd Tirthankar. The Yajur-veda also mentions the names of three Tirthankars, viz. Rishabhdev, Ajitanath and Aristanemi. Further, the Atharva-veda specifically mentions the sect of Vratya means the observer of vratas or vows as distinguished from the Hindus at those times. Similarly in the Atharva-veda the term Maha vratya occurs and it is supposed that this term refers to Rishabhdev, who could be considered as the great leader of the Vratyas.

Jainism in Buddha Period
Lord Mahavir was the senior contemporary of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. In Buddhist books Lord Mahavir is always described as nigantha Nataputta (Nirgrantha Jnatrputra), i.e., the naked ascetic of the Jnätr clan. Further, in the Buddhist literature Jainism is referred to as an ancient religion. There are ample references in Buddhist books to the Jain naked ascetics, to the worship of Arhats in Jain chaityas or temples and to the chaturyäma dharma (i.e. fourfold religion) of 23rd Tirthankar Parsvanath.

Moreover, the Buddhist literature refers to the Jain tradition of Tirthankars and specifically mentions the names of Jain Tirthankars like Rishabhdev, Padmaprabh, Chandraprabh, Puspdant, Vimalnath, Dharmanath and Neminath. The Buddhist book Manorathapurani, mentions the names of many lay men and women as followers of the Parsvanath tradition and among them is the name of Vappa, the uncle of Gautama Buddha. In fact it is mentioned in the Buddhist literature that Gautama Buddha himself practiced penance according to the Jain way before he propounded his new religion.

Jain Tirthankaras
Neminath or Aristanemi, who preceded Lord Parshvanath, was a cousin of Krishna. He was son of Samudravijaya and grandson of Andhakavrsni of Sauryapura. Krishna had negotiated the wedding of Neminath with Rajimati, the daughter of Ugrasena of Dvaraka. Neminath attained emancipation on the summit of Mount Raivata (Girnar). There is a mention of Neminath in several vedic canonical books. The king named Nebuchadnazzar was living in the 10th century B. C. It indicates that even in the tenth century B.C. there was the worship of the temple of Neminath.

The historicity of Lord Parshvanath has been unanimously accepted. He preceded Lord Mahavir by 25O years. He was the son of King Asvasena and Queen Vama of Varanasi. At the age of thirty he renounced the world and became an ascetic. He practiced austerities for eighty three days. on the eighty fourth day he obtained omniscience. Lord Parshvanath preached his doctrines for seventy years. At the age of one hundred he attained liberation on the summit of Mount Sammd (Parsnath Hills). The four vows preached by Lord Parshvanath are: not to kill, not to lie, not to steal, and not to own property.

Lord Mahavira was the twenty fourth, i.e., the last Tirthankaras. According to the tradition of the Shvetämbar Jains the Nirvän of Lord Mahavira took place 470 years before the beginning of the Vikrama Era. The tradition of the Digambar Jains maintains that Lord Mahavira attained Nirvän 605 years before the beginning of the Saka Era. By either mode of calculation the date comes to 527 B.C. Since the Lord attained emancipation at the age of 72, his birth must have been around 599 B.C. This makes Lord Mahavira slightly elder contemporary of Buddha who probably lived about 567-487 B.C. Lord Mahavira was the head of an excellent community of 14,000 monks, 36,000 nuns, 159,00O male lay votaries and 318,OOO female lay votaries. The four groups designated as monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen constitute the four fold order (tirtha) of Jainism.

Of the eleven principle disciples (ganadharas) of Lord Mahavir, only two, viz., Gautam Swami and Sudharma Swami survived him. After twenty years of Nirvän of Lord Mahavira, Sudharma Swami also attained emancipation. He was the last of the eleven gandharas to die. Jambu Swami, the last omniscient, was his pupil. He attained salvation after sixty four years of the Nirvän of Lord Mahavira.

There were both types of monks, viz., sachelaka (with clothes) and achelaka (without clothes), in the order of Lord Mahavir. Both types of these groups were present together up to several centuries after Nirvän of Lord Mahavira.

Keval-Jnani, Shrut Kevali & Das-Purvi Ächäryas
The keval-Jnani are those who have eradicated four soul defiling karmas and attained the perfect knowledge. Shrut-kevalis are those who know all 14 Purvas and 12 Ang-Pravishtha-Agams. Das-Purvis are those who knew the first ten Purvas and 11 Ang-Pravishtha-Agams.

Jain Ägams
The Jain literature, which was compiled by Ganadharas and Srut-kevlis, is known as Ägam literature. These texts are the Holy Scriptures of the Jain religion. The Jain Ägams consisted of 1) 14 Purvas, 2) 12 Ang-pravishtha-Ägams and 3) Ang-bähya-Ägams (34 for Shwetämbar murtipujak, 21 for Shwetämbar Sthanakväsi and 14 for Digambar).

With a view to establish order in the preaching of Lord Mahavir, Jain Acharyas assembled three times and prepared three recessions of the preaching. Whenever the Acharyas saw that the Shrut was waning and that there was disorderliness into it, they assembled and established order in it. No documentation occurred during the first recension (320 BC in Patliputra under the leadership of Sthulibhadra) but during the second (380 AD in Mathura and Vallabi under the leadership of Skandil and Nagarjun respectively) and third (520 AD in Vallabhi under the leadership of Devardhigani Acharya) conferences most of the scriptures, commentaries, and other works were documented.

All sects agree that 14 Purvas and Drastiväd, 12th Ang-pravishtha-Ägams are extinct. Digambars believe all Jain Ägams are extinct. While Shwetämbar sects accepts the existing Jain Ägams as authentic teachings of Lord Mahavir. However, Shwetämbar murtipujak believe there are 34 Ang-bähya-Ägams existing. while Shwetämbar Sthanakväsi believe there are 21 Ang-bähya-Ägams are existing.

The composition of scripture has a specific purpose of showing the listener the path of everlasting happiness and liberation. The Ägam Sutras teach the eternal truth about conduct, equanimity, universal affection and friendship, and the eternal truths on thinking, namely, the principle of relativity, principle of non-one-sided-ness and many spiritual things including great reverence for all forms of life, soul, karma, universe, strict codes of asceticism, rules for householders, compassion, nonviolence, non-possessiveness.

Jains believe that Ang-Ägams were at all times in the past, are in the present, and will be at all times in the future. They are eternal, firm, permanent, non-destructive, non-decaying and everlasting. Jains are people of books and there are many great books written on Jainism by many great Ächäryas and scholars.

Digambars And Shvetämbars:
Jains were divided into two groups, Shvetämbar and Digambar, nearly six hundred years after the Nirvän of Tirthankar Lord Mahavir. The process of the split continued from the third century B.C. up to the first century of the Christian Era. In the third century B.C. famous Jain saint Shrutakevali Bhadrabahu predicted a long and severe famine in the kingdom of Magadha (in modern Bihar) and with a view to avoid the terrible effects of famine Bhadrabahu, along with a body of 12,000 monks, migrated from Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha, to Shravanabelagola (in modern Karnataka State) in South India. Chandragupta Maurya (322‑298 B.C.). who was then the Emperor of Magadha and was very much devoted to Ächärya Bhadrabahu, abdi­cated his throne in favor of his son Bindusara, joined Bhadrabahu’s entourage as a monk-disciple, and stayed with Bhadrabahu at Shravana­belagola. Chandragupta, the devout ascetic disciple of Bhardrabahu, lived for 12 years after the death of his teacher Bhadrabahu, in about 297 B.C. and after practicing penance died according to the strict Jain rite of Sallekhana on the same hill at Shravanabelagola. This Bhadrabahu ­Chandragupta tradition is strongly supported by a large number of epigraphic and literary evidences of a very reliable nature.

When the ascetics of Bhadrabahu-sangha returned to Pataliputra after the end of twelve years period of famine, they, to their utter surprise, noticed two significant changes that had taken place during their absence. Among the ascetics of Magadha under the leadership of Ächärya Sthulibhadra. In the first place, the rule of nudity was relaxed and the ascetics were allowed to wear a piece of white cloth (known as Ardhaphalaka). Secondly, the sacred books were collected and edited at the council of Pataliputra in their absence in which they found some inconsistencies. As a result the group of returned monks did not accept the two things, introduced by the followers of Ächärya Sthulibhadra, namely, the relaxation of the rule of nudity and the recension of the sacred texts, and proclaimed themselves as true Jains. Eventually, the Jain religion was split up into two distinct sects, viz., the Digambara (sky-clad or stark naked) and the Shvetämbar (white-clad) about 600 years after Nirvän of Lord Mahavir.

1. When it comes to the philosophy of Jainism, there is essentially no difference between these two major sects.
2. The following main differences exist between the Digambars and Shvetämbars:
   The Digambars believe that no original canonical text exists now. The Shvetämbars still preserve a good number of original scriptures.
3. According to the Digambars, the omniscient no longer takes any earthly food. The Shvetämbars are not prepared to accept this conception.
4. The Digambars strictly maintain that there can be no salvation without nakedness. Since women cannot go without clothes, they are said to be incapable of salvation. The Shvetämbars hold that nakedness is not essential to attain liberation. Whence, women are also capable of salvation.
5. The Digambars hold that Lord Mahavir was not married. The Shvetämbars reject this view. According to them, Lord Mahavir was married and had a daughter.
6. The images of Tirthankars are not decorated at all by the Digambars, whereas the Shvetämbars profusely decorate them.

In India there are thousands of Jain Monks, in categories like Acharya, Upadhyaya and Muni. Trainee ascetics are known as Ailaka and Ksullaka in the Digambar tradition.

There are two categories of ascetics, Sadhu (monk) and Sadhvi (nun). They practice the five Mahavratas, three Guptis and five Samitis:

Five Mahavratas

• Ahimsa: Non-violence in thought, word and deed
• Satya: Truth which is (hita) beneficial, (mita) succinct and (priya) pleasing
• Acaurya: Not accepting anything that has not been given to them by the owner
• Brahmacarya: Absolute purity of mind and body
• Aparigraha: Non-attachment to non-self objects

Three Guptis

• Managupti: Control of the mind
• Vacanagupti: Control of speech
• Kayagupti: Control of body

Five Samitis

• Irya Samiti: Carefulness while walking
• Bhasha Samiti: Carefulness while communicating
• Eshana Samiti: Carefulness while eating
• Adana Nikshepana Samiti: Carefulness while handling their fly-whisks, water gourds, etc.
• Pratishthapana Samiti: Carefulness while disposing of bodily waste matter

Male Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and are nude. They practice non-attachment to the body and hence, wear no clothes. Shvetambara monks and nuns wear white clothes. Shvetambaras believe that monks and nuns may wear simple un-stitched white clothes as long as they are not attached to them. Jain monks and nuns travel on foot. They do not use mechanical transport.

Digambar followers take up to eleven Pratimaye (oath). Monks take all eleven oaths. They eat only once a day. The Male Digambar monk (Maharajji) eat standing at one place in their palms without using any utensil. They carry a vesel to keep water (Kamandal) used for washing hands and peacock feathered broom stick (peechi) used for cleaning the place before they sit on the ground. Its is done so as they do not hurt any insect while sitting or relaxing.

The monks have to wonder in different places so that they can spred the preachings of jainism and also not get attached with a place.

Jain fasting

Fasting is a tool for doing Tapa and to attach to your inner-being. It is a part of Jain festivals. It is three types based on the level of austerity; Uttam, Madhyam and Jaghanya; first being the most stringent:

1. Uttam: Renounce all worldly things including food & water on the day of fasting and eat only once on the eve & next day of fasting.

2. Madhyam: Food & water is not taken on the day of fast.

3. Jaghanya: Eat only once on the day.

During fasting a person immerses himself in religious activities (worshiping, serving the saints & be in their proximity, reading scriptures, Tapa, and donate to the right candidates - Supatra).

Most Jains fast at special times, like during festivals (known as Parva. Paryushana and Ashthanhika are the main Parvas which occurs 3 times in a year), and on holy days (eighth & fourteenth days of the moon cycle). Paryushana is the most prominent festival, lasting eight days for Svetambara Jains and ten days for Digambars, during the monsoon. The monsoon is considered the best time of fasting due to lenient weather. However, a Jain may fast at any time, especially if s/he feels some error has been committed. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to maintain self control.

1. Ahimsa (non-violence)

The Jain ecological philosophy is virtually synonymous with the principle of ahimsa (non-violence) which runs through the Jain tradition like a golden thread.“Ahimsa parmo dharmah” (Non-violence is the supreme religion). Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara (Path-finder) of this era, who lived 2500 years ago in north India, consolidated the basic Jain teachings of peace, harmony and renunciation, taught two centuries earlier by the Tirthankara Parshva, and for thousands of years previously by the 22 other Tirthankaras of this era, beginning with Adinatha Rishabha. Mahavira threw new light on the perennial quest of the soul with the truth and discipline of ahimsa. He said:" There is nothing so small and subtle as the atom nor any element so vast as space. Similarly, there is no quality of soul more subtle than non-violence and no virtue of spirit greater than reverence for life.”

Ahimsa is a principle that Jains teach and practice not only towards human beings but towards all nature. It is an unequivocal teaching that is at once ancient and contemporary. The scriptures tell us: “All the Arhats (Venerable Ones) of the past, present and future discourse, counsel, proclaim, propound and prescribe thus in unison: Do not injure, abuse, oppress, enslave, insult, torment, torture or kill any creature or living being.” In this strife-torn world of hatred and hostilities, aggression and aggrandizement, and of unscrupulous and unbridled exploitation and consumerism, the Jain perspective finds the evil of violence writ large.

The teaching of ahimsa refers not only to wars and visible physical acts of violence but to violence in the hearts and minds of human beings, their lack of concern and compassion for their fellow humans and for the natural world. Ancient Jain texts explain that violence (Ahimsa) is not defined by actual harm, for this may be unintentional. It is the intention to harm, the absence of compassion, that makes action violent. Without violent thought there could be no violent actions. When violence enters our thoughts, we remember Tirthankara Mahavira’s words:

“You are that which you intend to hit, injure, insult, torment, persecute, torture, enslave or kill.”

2. Parasparopagraho jivanam (interdependence)

Mahavira proclaimed a profound truth for all times to come when he said: “One who neglects or disregards the existence of earth, air, fire, water and vegetation disregards his own existence which is entwined with them” Jain cosmology recognizes the fundamental natural phenomenon of symbiosis or mutual dependence, which forms the basis of the modern day science of ecology. It is relevant to recall that the term `ecology’ was coined in the latter half of the nineteenth century from the Greek word oikos, meaning `home’, a place to which one returns. Ecology is the branch of biology which deals with the relations of organisms to their surroundings and to other organisms.

The ancient Jain scriptural aphorism Parasparopagraho jivanan (All life is bound together by mutual support and interdependence) is refreshingly contemporary in its premise and perspective. It defines the scope of modern ecology while extending it further to a more spacious ‘home’. It means that all aspects of nature belong together and are bound in a physical as well as a metaphysical relationship. Life is viewed as a gift of togetherness, accommodation and assistance in a universe teeming with interdependent constituents.

3. Anekantavada (the doctrine of manifold aspects)

The concept of universal interdependence underpins the Jain theory of knowledge, known as anekantava or the doctrine of manifold aspects. Anekantavada describes the world as a multifaceted, ever-changing reality with an infinity of viewpoints depending on the time, place, nature and state of the one who is the viewer and that which is viewed.

This leads to the doctrine of syadvada or relativity, which states that truth is relative to different viewpoints (nayas). What is true from one point of view is open to question from another. Absolute truth cannot be grasped from any particular viewpoint alone because absolute truth is the sum total of all the different viewpoints that make up the universe. Because it is rooted in the doctrines of anekantavada and syadvada, Jainism does not look upon the universe from an anthropocentric, ethnocentric or egocentric viewpoint. It takes into account the viewpoints of other species, other communities and nations and other human beings.

4. Samyaktva (equanimity)

The discipline of non-violence, the recognition of universal interdependence and the logic of the doctrine of manifold aspects, leads inexorably to the avoidance of dogmatic, intolerant, inflexible, aggressive, harmful and unilateral attitudes towards the world around. It inspires the personal quest of every Jain for samyaktva (equanimity) towards both jiva (animate beings) and ajiva (inanimate substances and objects). It encourages an attitude of give and take and of live and let live. It offers a pragmatic peace plan based, not on the domination of nature, nations or other people, but on an equanimity of mind devoted to the preservation of the balance of the universe.

5. Jiva-daya (compassion, empathy and charity)

Although the term `ahimsa’ is stated in the negative (a = non, himsa = violence), it is rooted in a host of positive aims and actions which have great relevance to contemporary environmental concerns. Ahimsa is an aspect of daya (compassion, empathy and charity), described by a great Jain teacher as “the beneficent mother of all beings” and “the elixir for those who wander in suffering through the ocean of successive rebirths.”

Jiva-daya means caring for and sharing with all living beings, tending, protecting and serving them. It etrails universal friendliness (maitri), universal forgiveness (kshama) and universal fearlessness (abhaya).Jains, whether monks, nuns or householders, therefore, affirm prayerfully and sincerely, that their heart is filled with forgiveness for all living beings and that they have sought and received the forgiveness of all beings, that they crave the friendship of all beings, that all beings give them their friendship and that there is not the slightest feeling of alienation or enmity in their heart for anyone or anything. They also pray that forgiveness and friendliness may reign throughout the world and that all living beings may cherish each other.

JAIN COSMOLOGY

Jains do not acknowledge an intelligent first cause as the creator of the universe. The Jain theory is that the universe has no beginning or end. It is traced to jiva and ajiva, the two everlasting, uncreated, independent and coexisting categories. Consciousness is jiva. That which has no consciousness is ajiva. There are five substances of ajiva:
Dharma : the medium of motion
Adharma : the medium of rest
Akasha : space
Pudgala : matter
Kala : time

Pudgala (matter) has form and consists of individual atoms (paramanu) and conglomerates of atoms (skandha) which can be seen, heard, smelt, tasted and/or touched. According to Jains, energy, or the phenomena of sound, darkness, shade, heat, light and the like, is produced by conglomerates of atoms.

The jiva (soul) has no form but, during its worldly career, it is vested with a body and becomes subject to an inflow of karmic `dust’ (asravas). These are the subtle material particles that are drawn to a soul because of its worldly activities. The asrawas bind the soul to the physical world until they have brought about the karmic result when they fall away `like ripe fruit’ by which time other actions have drawn more asravas to the soul.With the exception of the Arihantas (the Ever-Perfect) and the Siddhas (the Liberated), who have dispelled the passions which provide the `glue’ for the asravas, all souls are in karmic bondage to the universe. They go through a continuous cycle of death and rebirth in a personal evolution that can lead at last to moksha (eternal release). In this cycle there are countless souls at different stages of their personal evolution; earth-bodies, water-bodies, fire-bodies, air-bodies, vegetable-bodies, and mobile bodies ranging from bacteria, insects, worms, birds and larger animals to human beings, infernal beings and celestial beings.

The Jain evolutionary theory is based on a grading of the physical bodies containing souls according to the degree of sensory perception. All souls are equal but are bound by varying amounts of asravas (karmic particles) which is reflected in the type of body they inhabit. The lowest form of physical body has only the sense of touch. Trees and vegetation have the sense of touch and are therefore able to experience pleasure and pain, and have souls. Mahavira taught that only the one who understood the grave demerit and detriment caused by destruction of plants and trees understood the meaning and merit of reverence for nature. Even metals and stones might have life in them and should not be dealt with recklessly.

Above the single-sense jivas are micro-organisms and small animals with two, three or four senses. Higher in the order are the jivas with five senses. The highest grade of animals and human beings also possess rationality and intuition (manas). As a highly evolved form of life, human beings have a great moral responsibility in their mutual dealings and in their relationship with the rest of the universe. It is this conception of life and its eternal coherence, in which human beings have an inescapable ethical responsibility, that made the Jain tradition a cradle for the creed of environmental protection and harmony.

THE JAIN CODE OF CONDUCT

1. The five vratas (vows): The five vratas (vows) in the Jain code of conduct are:
Non-violence in thought, word and deed,
To seek and speak the truth,
To behave honestly and never to take anything by force or theft,
To practise restraint and chastity in thought, word and deed,
To practice non-acquisitiveness.

The vow of ahimsa is the first and pivotal vow. The other vows may be viewed as aspects of ahimsa which together form an integrated code of conduct in the individual’s quest for equanimity and the three jewels (ratna-traya) of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The vows are undertaken at an austere and exacting level by the monks and nuns and are then called maha-vratas (great vows). They are undertaken at a more moderate and flexible level by householders and called the anu-vratas (`atomic’ or basic vows).

Underlying the Jain code of conduct is the emphatic assertion of individual responsibility towards one and all. Indeed, the entire universe is the forum of one’s own conscience. The code is profoundly ecological in its secular thrust and its practical consequences.

2. Kindness to animals

The transgressions against the vow of non‑violence include all forms of cruelty to animals and human beings. Many centuries ago, Jains condemned as evil the common practice of animal sacrifice to the gods. It is generally forbidden to keep animals in captivity, to whip, mutilate or overload them or to deprive them of adequate food and drink. The injunction is modified in respect of domestic animals to the extent that they may be roped or even whipped occasionally but always mercifully with due consideration and without anger.

3. Vegetarianism

Except for allowing themselves a judicious use of one-sensed life in the form of vegetables, Jains would not consciously take any life for food or sport. As a community they are strict vegetarians, consuming neither meat, fish nor eggs. They confine themselves to vegetable and milk products

4. Self-restraint and the avoidance of waste
By taking the basic vows, the Jain laity endeavor to live a life of moderation and restraint and to practice a measure of abstinence and austerity. They must not procreate indiscriminately lest they overburden the universe and its resources. Regular periods of fasting for self-purification are encouraged.In their use of the earth’s resources Jains take their cue from “the bee [that] sucks honey in the blossoms of a tree without hurting the blossom and strengthens itself’. Wants should be reduced, desires curbed and consumption levels kept within reasonable limits. Using any resource beyond one’s needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed, the Jain
faith goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are acts of violence.

5. Charity
Accumulation of possessions and enjoyment for personal ends should be minimized. Giving charitable donations and one’s time for community projects generously is a part of a Jain householder’s obligations. That explains why the Jain temples and pilgrimage centers are well-endowed and well-managed. It is this sense of social obligation born out of religious teachings that has led the Jains to found and maintain innumerable schools, colleges, hospitals, clinics, lodging houses, hostels, orphanages, relief and rehabilitation camps for the handicapped, old, sick and disadvantaged as well as hospitals for ailing birds and animals. Wealthy individuals are advised to recognize that beyond a certain point their wealth is superfluous to their needs and that they should manage the surplus as trustees for social benefit.

The conception of Karma is a special feature of Jaina thought. The term "Karma" is used in different senses by different philosophical systems. The vedic schools of thought speak of Karmakanda as different from Gyanakanda. There, the Karma is synonymous with the action. The term has the same significance in Karmayoga as different from Gyanayoga. The term Karma used Karma theory according to Jainism has different significance. It is used in Jainism as an important factor in the development of organic world. In Poorva Meemamsa and Buddhism, every action is supposed to leave behind it, its effect in the form of Adrushta or Vasana. The term Adrushta was used by Poorva Meemamsa School, which signifies the after-effect of a sacrifice performed by an individual. This after-effect or Adrushta, which means, "Not perceived," is supposed to shape the future destiny of the individual who performs the sacrifice or Karma. Similarly, the Buddhist thinkers who do not postulate self or Atma, speak of the Vasana the after-effect of the psychic life. The only reality according to Buddhist philosophy is the series of psychic stages experienced by an individual. Neither the external world of objective reality nor the self is accepted by the Buddhist thinkers.

They introduced the conception of Vasana or the after-effect of particular stage in order to explain the causal relation of the psychic stages to one another. In all these cases, the theory of Karma has not been fully analysed as it is done in Jaina thought. Most of the Indian systems of philosophy do not accept the theory of creation; hence, they do not postulate the creator who is responsible for producing the world of things and persons. Since the Jaina thinkers do not accept the theory of creator, they cannot get satisfaction by referring these changes to the will of the creating deity. Hence, they have to provide a rational explanation for all the changes observed in the concrete world. How are the organic beings born? What are the factors, which contribute to their growth and development? Why do they cease to exist after a certain period of life? What happens to them after the disintegration of their bodies? All these problems are explained by the theory of Karma. This theory is similar to that of Charles Darvin who attempted to give a rational and scientific explanation in the Origin of Species.

The term Karma implies two things. Certain material particles, which constitute the different karmas, are called Dravya Karma. The impure psychic conditions which from the causal factors for the accumulation of karmic material particles constitutes Bhava Karma. Those two classes are inter-related to each other. Organisms in the concrete world are all characterised by the inter-play of these two kinds of Karmas. Jaina philosophy postulates two distinct types of reality, Chetana and Achetana, spiritual and non-spiritual. Organisms in the world of living beings have both these aspects. The body of the organism is constituted by material particles and the body is associated with conscious being, which operates through the body, the body being a suitable vehicle for the manifestation of the conscious Ego. The Ego in its pure form is not related to the material body in any form. But in the concrete world the Chetana spirit and Achetana matter, these two, are found in association. What is the cause of this unholy alliance? When was the pure Ego first entangled itself into the material meshes? This question has in meaning for the Indian thinkers in general. Irrespective of their different philosophical systems, all of them assume that the embodied existence of the Ego has no beginning. According to them, Samsara is Andi. The term "Samsara" is used to denote the world of organism characterised by birth, growth and development and decay and death. This world of Samsara is considered to be Anadi without beginning. Though this world of Samsara is taken as Anadi, still and individual in this world may hope to achieve a state of existence, which is not subject to the changes of birth, growth and death, the characteristic changes of Samsaric existence. This state of existence, which knows no rebirth, is assumed to be the goal of life, state of liberation or Moksha.

An individual living being whether human or sub-human, is subjected to birth and death. But after death, which result in the dissolution of the body, there still survives the spiritual entity the Ego which has to be born again in the world of Samsara and continue its life of birth, growth and death once again. This must go on indefinitely till the self attains its final liberation. What is the characteristic of the Ego at the time of the death of the organism? Except the Indian materialistic school of Charvakas, all the other Indian systems of philosophy believe that the soul survives after death, The Jaina system also accepts this doctrine that the soul survives death; at the disintegration of the body, the surviving soul is still associated with a subtle body constituted by Karmic particles. This subtle body is called Karmana Sarira, body constituted by subtle karmic material particles. This Karmana Sarira is unalienable, associated with the soul throughout its career of births and deaths in the world of Samsara. This Karmana Sarira will be broken up and destroyed at the last stage when the soul attains its pure nature. The causes by which this Karmana Sarira is built up, how this affects the nature of the pure self, how the pure self is obscured and prevented from its free expression, are all connected with and explained by the Theory of Karmas according to Jaina thought.

	Namo Arihantanam I bow in reverence to Arihants Namo Siddhanam I bow in reverence to Siddhas Namo Ayariyanam I bow in reverence to Acharyas Namo Uvajjhayanam I bow in reverence to Upadhyayas Namo Loye Savva Sahunam I bow in reverence to all Sadhus Eso Panch Namoyaro This five-fold salutation Savva Pavappanasano Destroys all sins Mangalanam Cha Savvesim And amongst all auspicious things Padhamam Havai Mangalam Is the most auspicious one
णमो अरिहंताणं णमो सिद्धाणं णमो आयरियाणं णमो उवज्झायणं णमो लोए सव्व साहूणं एसो पंच णमोयारो, सव्व पावप्पणासणो मंगलाणं च सव्वेसिं, पढमं हवइ मंगलं
With the above invocation repeated several times every day the Jains bow with hands folded in anjali (worship) in the four cardinal directions, East, West, South and North. While reciting the Navkar Mantra, we are bowing down with respect Arihantas, Siddhas, Acharya(heads of sadhus and sadhvis), Upadhyaya (those who teach scriptures to sadhus and sadhvis), Sadhus (monks, who have voluntarily given up social, economical and family relationships) and Sadhvis (nuns, who have voluntarily given up social, economical and family relationships). Collectively, they are called Panch Parmesthi (five supreme spiritual people). In this mantra we worship their virtues rather than worshipping any one particular person or Tirthankara. This mantra is also called Namaskar or Namokar Mantra as we are bowing down. ARIHANTAS The word Arihanta is made up of two words: 1) Ari, meaning enemies, and 2)hanta, meaning destroyer of the enemies. These enemies are inner desires known as passions such as anger, ego, deception, and greed within us. When a person (soul) wins over these inner enemies he/she is called Arihanta. Arihanta destroys the four ghati karmas namely Jnanavarniya (knowledge blocking) Karma, Darshanavarniya (perception blocking) Karma, Mohniya (passion causing) Karma and Antaraya (obstacle causing) Karma. Arihanta attains: 1) Kevaljnan, perfect knowledge due to the destruction of all Jnanavarniya Karmas, 2) Kevaldarshan, perfect perception due to the destruction of all Darshanavarniya karmas, 3) becomes passionless due to the destruction of all Mohniya Karmas, and 4) gains infinite power due to the destruction of all Antaraya Karmas. SIDDHAS Siddhas are the liberated souls. They are no longer among us because they have completely ended the cycle of birth and death. They have reached the ultimate highest state, salvation. They do not have any karmas, and they do not collect any new karmas. This state of true freedom is called Moksha. ACHARYAS Acharyas carry the message of Jina. They are our spiritual leaders. Acharyas must have to do in-depth study and achieve mastery of the Jain scriptures (Ägams). In addition to acquiring a high level of spiritual excellence, they have the ability to lead the monks and nuns. They know various languages with a sound knowledge of other philosophies and religions of the area and the world. UPADHYAYAS The title Upadhyayas is given to those Sadhus who have acquired a special knowledge of the Ägams and philosophical systems. They teach Jain scriptures to sadhus and sadhvis. SADHUS AND SADHVIS When householders become detached from the worldly aspects of life and get the desire for spiritual uplift (and not worldly uplift), they give up their worldly lives and become sadhus (monk) or sadhvis (nun). A male person is called sadhu, and a female person is called sadhvi.

Jaina Metaphysics speaks about the nature of reality. This world of reality consists of two items – Loka and Aloka, the concrete world which is the object of our experience and the beyond, which consists of pure space, respectively. The concrete world is constituted by 5 real categories which are Asthikayas. These are:

1. Jiva (soul)
2. Pudgala (matter)
3. Dharma (principal of rest)
4. Adharma (principal of motion)
5. Akasa (space)

These are eternal and uncreated by any external agency and in magnitude; it may be minute or huge. Since we saw the real and existing categories, they are called Kayas. Hence, the term “Asthikata” means an existent reality that is related to space. The material objects are related to space. This is quite obvious. Jiva or Soul is also considered to be Asthikayas. Living being is always associated with an organic body which is also an object in space. Because of this relation to a body, Jiva is also an Asthikaya.

Dharma and Adharma, the principle of rest and motion, are different from matter. They are of a subtle form like ether. Since they pervade the whole world space, they are also called Asthikayas. Space is also considered an existential real. Hence, space is also Ipso Facto an Asthikaya. Unlike the various idealistic systems of philosophy for which space is unreal, Jainism maintains that the space has a reality.

The nature of the Asthikayas is such that they manifest themselves through their various qualities and modes. These 5 existing reals or Asthikayas undergo change while maintaining their identity. They have three characteristics, appearing, disappearing and remaining permanent in spite of the above qualities. They are Utpada, Vyaya and Drowvya – creation, destruction and permanence respectively. These are the three fundamental qualities of real existence. The reality in process of development exhibit these 3 qualities of appearance, disappearance and underlying permanent identity called Drowvya. The above mentioned 5 Asthikayas exhibit this quality of change of development. For that reason, they are called Dravyas. Dravya means that which flows.

Kala or time has no relation to space. Hence, it is not included in the class of Asthikayas. But Kala or time has these qualities of Dravya. Kala is also considered as a Dravya. Hence, the class Dravyas consists of six items, the 5 Asthikayas and Kala or time. These six Dravyas are mutually interpenetrating. Though they exist together in the same world space, they maintain their individual nature. The nature of Dravya is described thus: That which maintains its identity while manifesting in various qualities and modifications and which is not different from Satta or substance is called Dravya. In Jaina Metaphysics, there is no unchanging substance or Satta. Satta or substance is manifesting itself through various qualities and modes. Hence, it is identical with Dravya or the development reality. Further, Dravya is defined thus : What all has substantiality as the dialectical triad of birth, death and permanence, and is the substratum of qualities and modes, is Dravya.

Here the three characteristics of Dravyas are described. First Dravya has the quality of Sat or existence. Secondly it has quality of permanence through birth and death. Thirdly, it is the substratum of attributes and conditions. The quality of “Sat” emphasises the substantial reality of Dravya. It is not merely the from of the intellect. It has existence in Rerum Natura. The triple quality of dialectical change is the second attribute. Utpada is appearance i.e., assuming new modification. This does not mean creation out of nothing. Creation by the flat of a will is not recognized by the Jainas. Utpada therefore means that phase of the process of the development when a new form is assumed. Vyaya is losing the previous form. Here also it is different from absolute disappearance. It only means that phase in the process of development where the earlier form is replaced by the succeeding one. Dhruva refers to the persistence of the essential nature of Dravya which undergoes development and which makes both Utpada and Vyaya simultaneously possible. In fact, the process of development includes all the three phases. This fact in not only recognized by the scientists like Drawing and Spencer but by the great French philosopher Bergson who raised it to an important philosophical principle. Lastly, Dravya is the substratum of qualities and modes. Attributes and modifications will have no basis if they do not rest on something real. This does not mean the Dravya is merely a prop, supporting an alien fact the attribute; but still the Jainas do not admit that the attributes alone are sufficient to constitute a reality. For them, Esse is not Percipii. Attributes in order to be objective and not merely psychical do require an objective basis ; such a basis is Dravya. Finally it is to be noted that these three characteristics are inseparable from one another. Satta pre-supposes Utpada, Vyaya, Dhruvatva and also is the substratum. Similarly, process of development implies Satta, which again cannot exist apart from qualities and modes. Neither of the three can exist apart from the other two. In short, the three characteristics express the same essential nature of Dravya in the different ways.

In examining the nature of Dravya, we may attend to the underlying permanent substance or the changing modes. The former point of view is called Dravyarthika Naya and the latter Paryayartika Naya. According to Dravyarthika Naya, for example, the substance, gold is neither created nor can be destroyed. It exists as a permanent substance. But this gold may be made into various ornaments and other things. These are its modes or Paryayas. These modes are liable to change. One ornament may be melted and another made. In melting ornament, its shape is destroyed. In making a new ornament, a new shape is created. Hence creating a new shape and destroying the old shape are associated with the modes of the substance gold. Hence, these modes are associated with Utpada and Vyaya creation and destruction. Though substance and modes may be studied separately, still they should not be assumed to be exiting independent of each other. Substance cannot exist independent of its modes and mode cannot exist independent of the substance. What is true of the substance and its modes is equally true of the substance and its qualities. For example, the qualities of gold, which are yellow, heavy and malleable, are inseparably associated with the substance. The qualities are but the manifestation of the nature of the substance. No substance without its qualities and no quality without its substance, are independent.

Each of the six Dravyas has its own special qualities and modes. Let us take up the first Dravya, Jiva or soul. Its nature is Chethana or consciousness. Its essential qualities are perception and knowledge. These two Darsana and Gyana are called Upayoga. Jiva may be born as a Deva or as a man or as a hell being or an animal. These various stages of its existence are called its Paryayas or modes. Life in any one of these forms subjected to birth, growth and old age and death. These changes in its life are brought about by its association with Karma. The Jiva because of its association with Karma undergoes the above changes of birth, old age and death. This Jiva is called Samsara Jiva. Because of its intimate connection with Karma, Samsara Jiva is said to be impure. Its nature being impure, its qualities and modes are necessarily impure. When the Jiva completely liberates itself from Karma, it becomes pure. Then it is called Suddha Jiva, the pure self. In this pure state, its qualities are pure. The soul, which liberates itself from Samsara and realises its pure nature in Moksha, is not entirely distinct from the soul, which was in Samsara. They are not two different entities. For example, a gem picked up from the mine may be covered with impurities. But when it is purified and cut, the very same gem becomes brilliant. Even so, every Jiva in Samsara is in the shackles of Karma. When it breaks these chains and liberates itself, it attains its state of Nirvana.

The attributes of Samsaric Jiva are (1), life, i.e., its 10 pranas or life-principles, (2) Chethana or consciousness, (3) Upayoga – knowledge and perception or Gyana and Darsana which are the two Upayagas associated with Jiva or soul, (4) Prabhutva or Lordship capacity to take different status of existence in Samsara, (5) Kartha – who is the actor of his own Karmas, (6) Bhokta or enjoyer – he enjoys the fruits of his own Karmas; (describing the Jiva as a Kartha, the Sankhya view that the Purusha is not the actor but only the enjoyer is rejected. The statement that Jiva is a Bhokta rejects the Buddhistic view that the soul that acts and that which enjoys the fruits of its action are two different entities). The next (7) Dehamatra – of the same size as the body. Its nature pervades the whole of its body. This rejects the theory that the soul is a minute atom situated inside the particular organ of the body i.e., the heart. The next is (8) Amurtha – being a spiritual entity has no corporeal form and the last (9) Karma Samyukta – which means always in association with Karma.

The pure and liberated self has got its own 9 qualities. They are: (1) Pure and perfect self, (2) Perfect consciousness or Chethana, (3) Suddha Upayaga or pure Upayaga – consisting of Kevala Gyana and Kevala Darsana, (4) Lordship- having destroyed the Karmas the self attains perfect sovereignty, (5) he is true Kartha being entirely uninfluenced by the alien conditions i.e., self determination, (6) True Boktha – enjoying the transcendent and infinite bliss, (7) Spiritual in nature – has a form similar to the last body, (8) Completely devoid of corporeal form having destroyed the karmic body and (9) completely free from Karmic body – Karmanirumukta.

A living organism has 4 Pranas or vital forces. They are (1) Bala Prana consisting of Mano Bhala – strength of mind, Vak Bhala, strength of speech and Kaya Bala - strength of body, (2) Indrya Prana – which are the vital forces represented by the senses Sparsa – contact, Rasa – taste, Grana – smell, Sabda – sound, and Chakshu – visual sense thus the Indrya Pranas are five, (3) Ayush Prana – which is the duration of life and (4) Utchavasa Prana – respiration. These four main Pranas become 10 when the subdivisions are taken into consideration. That which manifests through the 4 Pranas and is living at present, was living in the past and will continue to live in the future, that is Jiva.

Pudgala or matter refers to the physical objects perceived by us. Pudgala exists in two forms, Paramanu primary atom and Skanda aggregates of atoms of molecules. These molecules or Skandas have the characteristics of touch, taste, smell, sound and colour. These aggregates may increase in volume or decrease, according as more molecules combined with or break away as the case may be. These Skandas are of 6 different forms, such as earth, air, water, shade the objects of the four senses, karmic matter and molecules which are unfit to become karmic matter. These 6 kinds of Skandas are described thus: (1) Bhadra Bhadra, solid; (2) Bhadra – liquid; (3) Sukshma Bhadra – apparently solid by the shadow; (4) Bhadra Sukshma – minute particles evident to the senses; (5) Sukshma – minute and imperceptible and (6) Sukshma Sukshma – extremely minute. All these Skandas are constituted by Paramanu, the basis atom. Ordinary physical objects are all formed out of these basic primary atoms. Like Jiva, primary atom is also uncreated and indestructible. Some Indian systems of thought postulate different kinds of atoms corresponding to 4 Bhuthas, earth, air, fire and water. But according to Jaina philosophy, all atoms are all of identical nature. With their differences in composition, they produce various kinds of Dhathus such as earth, air etc. Hence, there is no qualitative differences among Paramanus.

Skandas constituted by Paramanus when they strike one another, produce sound. But the Paramanus cannot produce sound. Hence, they are said to be soundless. All objects of sense perception are constituted by Pudgala or matter. Anything that has the quality, colour, taste, smell, touch and sound, comes under this head. Not only objects perceived by the senses but also the sense organs are physical or material. The various Sariras of the organic bodies of the Jivas are also physical or material. Manas or mind is also considered to be physical. The term Sarira have means all the 5 kinds of Sariras viz., Aoudarika Sarira, Vaikriyaka Sarira, Aaharaka Sarira, Thaijasa Sarira and Karmana Sarira. The term Karma Pudgala denotes minute material particles which constitute the Karmana Sarira of a Jiva. No- Karma-Pudgala refers to matter assimilated by the ordinary organic body through the process of digestion and metabolism.

Dharmastikaya is devoid of the sense qualities such as taste, colour, smell, touch and sound. Hence it is different from Pudgala or matter. It pervades the whole world. This description is also applicable to its opposite Adharmastikaya. The former is the principle of motion and the latter is the principle of rest. It is Amurtha or non-corporeal. It is not physical and hence sense qualities cannot be associated with it. It is not the aggregate of the simple elements as matter. It is co-existent with the world space. It is permanent and real. It forms indispensable condition of movement of physical objects and living beings. In itself, it is not capable of movement nor is it capable of creating movement in other thing. The analogy of water is used to illustrate its nature. Water is the necessary condition of the movement of fish. But water does not in any way impel the fish to move. Similarly, Dharmastikaya is the necessary condition of motion among physical objects of living beings. But it is not the cause of movement of those objects.

Adharmastikaya is the principle of rest. Its nature is quite similar to the Dharmastikaya. It is also devoid of sense qualities. Hence it is also non-corporeal. It is co-extensive with Loka-Akasa. But it has its own special quality. It is the basic condition of rest. Because of this, the moving objects are brought to rest. The analogy of earth is given in this respect. Earth does not actively arrest the movement of objects – physical and living. But it serves as a place of rest for moving things. The existence of these two principles is postulated as a necessary condition of the world structure. The world is an organised system. It owes its organised systems to these two principles of Dharma and Adharma. Otherwise, material particles will be scattered through the whole space converting the cosmos into chaos. Then there will be no world as such. Though they themselves are Nishkriya Dravyas or non-active things, yet they form the necessary condition of motion or rest of things both living and non-living. In order to explain the systematic structure of the cosmos, Jaina philosophy introduces these two postulates of Dharma and Adharma. If these two principles exist within the limit of world space causing motion and rest, then things in motion must be moved forever and things at rest must be stationary forever. But our experiences are quite different. One and the same thing may be in motion or in rest. Therefore, Dharma and Adharma must not be considered as efficient causes. They are quite neutral in themselves. Without these two entities, the world is impossible and incomplete.

The Akasa term means space. What give accommodation to things living and non-living is called Akasa or space. According to Jaina metaphysics, space is objectively real. According to philosophical idealism, space cannot be real because it is considered to be self contradictory. But modern mathematicians do not consider space as self contradictory and impossible. It is assumed to be real. Space contains the other 5 Dravyas. That portion of space where these Dravyas exist is called Loka Akasa. Beyond this, there is empty space called Aloka Akasa or Ananta Akasa. No things exist in this infinite space.

Cannot Akasa or space be taken as a condition of motion and rest? Why should the two other categories Dharma and Adharma be postulated? Such a supposition would be impossible and conflicting with the facts; for wherever there is space, there should be free chance for motion and rest. But as a matter of fact, not a single thing living of non-living steps beyond the limit of Loka Akasa. Hence Akasa is not endowed with the function of motion and rest. If space cannot be the condition of motion and rest, these must be explained. Dharma and Adharma are such condition. Hence they are the necessary constituents of the system of reality. Dharma Adharma and Akasa – all the three are inter-penetrating and co-incident. They pervade the whole world. These 3 are Amurtha Dravyas. They have no corporeal form. Ordinary physical objects are having sense qualities. Jivas have psychic qualities. These 3 Dravyas have no such differentiating characteristics. They are differentiated from one another according to their function.

Kala Dravya or time Kala or time is one of the Dravyas according to Jaina metaphysics. The whole world is a dynamic reality. Since it consists of real, which are constantly changing, the idea of development or change naturally implies time duration in which the development takes place. If development is taken to be real, then time duration which is the condition of development must also be real. The system of philosophy which dismisses time as unreal must also dismiss change and development as unreal. Since the Jaina thinkers recognize the reality of development in the world, they do postulate real time as an assessed condition of this development. Hence time is one of the real Dravyas according to Jaina metaphysics.

Panch Parmeshthi Bhagavan

Siddhas, arhats, acharyas, upadhyayas and sadhus are called pancha - parameshthis or the five supreme ones, to whom the Jainas pray and bow many times every day with the following invocation (mantra) :-

Namo arahantanam, namo siddhanam, namo ayarianam, namo uvajjhayanam, namo loye sabba-sahunam.

“Salutation to the arhats, to the siddhas, to the acharyas, to the upadhyayas and to all the sadhus of the world”.
With the above invocation repeated millions of times every day the Jainas bow with hands folded in anjali (worship) in the four cardinal directions, east, south, west and north. The main import of such a prayer is three-fold: -

(1) Worship is given to all human souls worthy of it, in whatever clime they may be,
(2) worship is impersonal. It is the aggregate of the qualities that is worshipped rather than any individual,
(3) The arhat, “the living embodiment of the highest goal of Jainism”, is mentioned first and then the siddha who is disembodies and consequently cannot be appealed to or approached by humanity. As the siddha is without body the Jainas feel that they can never pray to the siddha alone and preeminently. A siddha has, infinite attributes of which 8 are generally mentioned and these the Jainas recite, telling their beads. By this they do not worship or salute the siddha but tell their beads “ only with the object of stirring up their spiritual ambition and in order to remind themselves of the qualities a siddha must possess, in the hope that some day they too may reach their desired goal, and in perfect bliss in the state of mrvana, doing nothing for ever and ever.” Chanting the pancha-namaskara –mantra 108 times and telling the beads purify the soul.

Images and sculptures containing figures of these five supreme ones (pancha-parameshthins) can be seen in Jaina temples. They are invariably in the shape of chakras standing on padmasanas. A very interesting specimen of this symbolic worship is found in the temple at Tiruparuttikunram. The whole is in the form of a chakra, which is supported by a crouching lion and two rearing yalis in turn standing on a padmasana attached to a rectangular bhadrasana. The chakra can compare well with the Hindu chakra, which is associated with Vishnu. Within the chakra is placed an eight-petalled lotus (astadala-padma), each petal bearing a seated figure or some article. The figures are those of the five supreme ones (arhat, siddha, acharya, upadhyaya and sadhu) while the articles are a dharmachakra or the wheel of the law, a wooden rest supporting the Jaina scripture called sruta or sruta-jnana and a temple (Jina-alaya). In the centre of the lotus where one would expect the seed-vessel of the lotus, is the seated figure of the Tirthankara in all his glory, attended by chamaras, triple-parasol, halo and the like. This chakra is symbolical of the worship of Navadeuatas or the “nine deities,” they being the five panchaparameshthins and dharmachakra, sruta, chaitya and chaityalya. The panchaparameshthins occupy the centre and the four cardinal points of the lotus while the latter four go in the petals alternately in the following order ; preceding clockwise dharmachakra first, then sruta, then chaitya (an idol) and lastly chaityalaya or temple.

The evolution of souls is based on three fundamental principles, viz., that man is not perfect, but can improve and can achieve perfection, that man’s personality is dual, material and spiritual, and that by his spiritual nature man can must control his material nature. The second of the principles is in striking contrast with the Hindu Advaitic doctrine of Brahman, or one soul, which is in all and is all. When the material nature is entirely subjugated the soul is said to have been liberated or to have attained perfection. In its perfection-condition the soul “enjoys its true and eternal character, whereof the characteristic is the four infinities-infinite perception of faith, infinite knowledge, infinite power and infinite bliss.” And such a soul is called a Siddha.

Jain Temples Alphabetically - India

[A]

Aharji, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Aharji, M. P.

Ahichchhatra Parshvanath, U. P.
Shri Ahichchhatra Parshvanath Atishaya Teerth Kshetra Digambar Jain Mandir, Ramnagar, U. P.

Arthuna, Rajasthan
Shri Nasiyaji Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Arthuna, Rajasthan

Ashta Kasar, Maharashtra
Shri Vighnahar Parshvanath Digamber Jain Mandir Atishaya Kshetra, Ashta (Kasar), Maharashtra

[B]

Babanagar, Karnataka
Shri Atishaya Kshetra Parsvanath Swami Darbar, Babanagar, Karnataka

Bajrang Garh, M. P.
Shri Shantinath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Bajrang Garh, M. P.

Bandhaji, M. P.
Shri 1008 Ajitnath Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Bandhaji, M. P.

Banpur, U. P.
Shri Dig. Jain Atishaya Kshetra Banpur, U. P.

Bara Padampura, Rajasthan
Shri Dig. Jain Atishaya Kshetra Bara Padampura, Jaipur, Rajasthan

Bawangaja (Chulgiri), Badwani, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Chulgiri (Bawangaja), Badwani, M. P.

Beed, Maharashtra
Shri 1008 Trylokya Chudamani Vasupujya Bhagwan & Shri 1008 Ichaapurak Parsavanath Bhagwan Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Beed, Maharashtra

Beenaji Barha, M. P.
Shri 1008 Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Beenaji (Barha), M. P.

Bhatkuli Jain, Maharashtra
Shri Adinath Swami Digamber Jain Samsthan (Atishaya Kshetra) Bhatkuli Jain, Maharashtra

Bhojpur, M. P.
Shri Shantinath Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Bhojpur, M. P.

Bijapur, Karnataka
Shri Atishaya Kshetra 1008 Sahastra Fani Parsvanath Digamber Jain Mandir, Bijapur, Karnataka

Bijoliya, Rajasthan
Shri Digamber Jain Parsvanath Teerth Kshetra Bijoliya, Rajasthan

[C]

Chamatkarji, Rajasthan
Shri Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Chamatkarji, Rajasthan

Champanery, Rajasthan
Shri Atishayakari Sambhavnath & Parshvanath Digambar Jain Mandir Champanery, Rajasthan

Champapur, Bihar
Shri Champapur Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Nathnagar, Bhagalpur, Bihar

Chanderi, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Choubeesee Bara Mandir, Chanderi, M. P.

Chandkheri, Rajasthan
Shri Adinath Dig. Jain Atishaya Kshetra Chandkheri, Rajasthan

Chanvaleshwar Parshvanath, Rajasthan
Shri Chanvaleshwar Parshvanath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Chainpura, Rajasthan

Chintamani Parsvanath, Maharashtra
Shri 1008 Chintamani Parsvanath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Kachner, Maharashtra

ChittorGarh, Rajasthan
Shri Digambar Jain Mandir & Kirti Stambha, ChittorGarh Fort, Rajasthan

[D]

Devlali, Maharashtra
Poojya Shri Kahnji Swami Smarak Trust Devlali, Maharashtra

Drongiri, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Drongiri, M. P.

[E]

Ellora, Maharashtra
Shri Parsvanath Pahar Mandir Atishaya Kshetra & Gurukul Ellora, Maharashtra

[F]

[G]

Ghogha, Gujarat
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Ghogha, Bhavnagar, Gujarat

Girnarji, Gujarat
Shri Girnarji Siddha Kshetra, Gujarat

Gopachal Hill, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Gopachal Hill (Gwalior), M. P.

[H]

Hastinapur, U. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Teerth Kshetra Hastinapur, U. P.

Hombuja, Karnataka
Shri Hombuja Atishaya Mahakshetra, Karnataka

[I]

Ishurvara, M. P.
Shri 1008 Shantinath Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Ishurvara, Kolaras, M. P.

[J]

Jintur, Maharashtra
Shri Digamber Jain Atishya Kshetra Nemgiri Samsthan, Jintur, Maharashtra

[K]

Kachner, Maharashtra
Shri 1008 Chintamani Parsvanath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Kachner, Maharashtra

Kakandi, U. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Teerth Kshetra Kakandi, U. P.

Kalikund Parsvanath, Maharashtra
Shri Kalikund Parsvanath Digamber Jain Siddha (Atishaya) Kshetra, Kundal, Maharashtra

Kampilji, U. P.
Shri Vimalnath Digamber Jain Teerth Kshetra Kampilji, U. P.

Karguvanji, U. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Sanvaliya Parasnath Karguvanji, U. P.

Keshavrai Patan, Rajasthan
Shri Munisuvratnath Dig. Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Keshavrai Patan, Rajasthan

Khajuraho, M. P.
Shri Digamber Atishay Kshetra, Khajuraho, M. P.

Khandargiri, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Khandargiri, M. P.

Koniji, M. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Kundalgiri (Koniji), Patan, M. P.

Kumbhoj Bahubali, Maharashtra
Kumbhoj Bahubali, Kolhapur, Maharashtra

Kundal, Maharashtra
Shri Kalikund Parsvanath Digamber Jain Siddha (Atishaya) Kshetra, Kundal, Maharashtra

KundalGiri, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra KundalGiri (Kundalpur), M. P.

Kundalpur Bihar, Bihar
Shri Kundalpur Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Bihar

Kunthalgiri, Maharashtra
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Kunthalgiri, Maharashtra

[L]

[M]

Mahaveerji, Rajasthan
Shri Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Mahaveerji, Rajasthan

Makshi Parshwanath, M. P.
Shri Dig. Jain Atishaya Kshetra Makshi Parshwanath, M. P.

Mandargiri, Bihar
Shri Mandargiri Dig. Jain Siddha Kshetra, Bihar

Mangi Tungi, Maharashtra
Shri Dig. Jain Siddha Kshetra Mangi Tungi, Maharashtra

Marsalganj, U. P.
Shri Marsalganj (Rishabh Nagar) Diagambar Jain Atishaya Teerth Kshetra, Marsalganj, U. P.

Muktagiri (Mendhagiri), M. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Siddha Kshetra Muktagiri (Mendhagiri), M. P.

[N]

Nagphani Parshvanath, Rajasthan
Shri Nagphani Parshvanath, Moder, District – Dungarpur, Rajasthan

Nainagiri, M. P.
Shri 1008 Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Nainagiri (Reshandigiri), M. P.

Nava Garh, U. P.
Shri 1008 Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Nava Garh (Nabai), U. P.

Navagarh – Ukhlad, Maharashtra
Shri 1008 Neminath Bhagwan Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Jainendra Navagarh – Ukhlad, Maharashtra

Nougaja, M. P.
Shri Shantinath (Nougaja) Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Sesai, Kolaras, M. P.

[O]

[P]

Palitana, Gujarat
Shri Digambar Jain Siddha Kshetra Shatrunjaya Giri, Palitana, Gujarat

Panagar, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Panagar, M. P.

Papouraji, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Papouraji, M. P.

Pateria, M. P.
Shri Parsvanath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Pateria, M. P.

PatnaGanj, M. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Teerth Kshetra, Patnaganj – Rahli, M. P.

Pavagiri Una, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Pavagiri Una, M. P.

Pawagiriji, U. P.
Shri 1008 Dig. Jain Siddha Kshetra Pawagiriji, U. P.

Ponnur Hills, Tamilnadu
Shri Ponnur Hills, Kund Kund Nagar, Tamilnadu

[Q]

[R]

Rajgrahi, Bihar
Shri Digambar Jain Siddha Kshetra Rajgrahi (Rajgir), Bihar

Reshandigiri, M. P.
Shri 1008 Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Nainagiri (Reshandigiri), M. P.

Rishabhanchala, U. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Teerth Rishabhanchala, U. P.

RishabhDev, Rajasthan
Shri Rishabh Dev Digambar Jain Atishaya Teerth Kshetra, Rishabh Dev, Rajasthan

[S]

Sahastra Fani Parsvanath, Karnataka
Shri Atishaya Kshetra 1008 Sahastra Fani Parsvanath Digamber Jain Mandir, Bijapur, Karnataka

Sammed Shikharji, Jharkhand
Shri Digambar Jain Siddha Kshetra Sammed Shikharji, Jharkhand, Jharkhand

Sanganer, Jaipur, Rajasthan
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Mandir, Sanghiji, Sanganer, Jaipur, Rajasthan

Sanvaliya Parasnath, U. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Sanvaliya Parasnath Karguvanji, U. P.

Sarwar, Rajasthan
Shri Adinath Dig. Jain Atishaya Kshetra Sarwar, Rajasthan

Sawargaon, Maharashtra
Shri Parshvanath Digambar Jain Atishya Kshetra Sawargaon (Koti), Maharashtra

Seronaji, U. P.
Shri Shantinath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra, Seronaji, U. P.

Shiradshahapur, Maharashtra
Shri 1008 Mallinath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Shiradshahapur, Maharashtra

Shouripur – Bateshwar, U. P.
Shri Shouripur – Bateshwar Digambar Jain Siddha Kshetra, Agra, U. P.

Shravasti, U. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Shravasti Teerth Kshetra, U. P.

Siddhaverkoot, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Siddhaverkoot, M. P.

Simhanagadde, Karnataka
Shri Atishaya Kshetra Simhanagadde, Narasimharajapur, Karnataka

Sinhoniyaji, M. P.
Shri Shantinath Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Sinhoniyaji, M. P.

Sonagiri, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Siddha Shetra Sonagiri, M. P.

[T]

Tapasthali Prayag, U. P.
Teerthankar Rishabh Deo Tapasthali, Prayag, U. P.

Thair (Ter), Maharashtra
Shri 1008 Mahaveer Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Thair (Ter), Maharashtra

Thuvonji, M. P.
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Thuvonji, M. P.

Tijara (Dehra), Rajasthan
Shri 1008 Chandra Prabhu Digambar Jain Atishaya Kshetra Dehra Tijara, Rajasthan

Todi Fatehpur, U. P.
Shri Digambar Jain Atishaya Chamatkari Kshetra Todi Fatehpur, U. P.

[U]

[V]

Venur, Karnataka
Shri Digamber Jain Atishaya Teerth Kshetra Venur, Karnataka

Vighnahar Parshvanath, Maharashtra
Shri Vighnahar Parshvanath Digamber Jain Mandir Atishaya Kshetra, Ashta (Kasar), Maharashtra

[W]

[X]

[Y]

[Z]